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(without working knowledge)

  • 1 knowledge

    knowledge [ˈnɒlɪdʒ]
    1. noun
       a. ( = understanding, awareness) connaissance f
    • it has come to my knowledge that... j'ai appris que...
    • it's common knowledge that... il est de notoriété publique que...
       b. ( = body of knowledge) savoir m ; (in a given field) connaissances fpl
    * * *
    ['nɒlɪdʒ]
    1) ( awareness) connaissance f

    to my certain knowledge he... — je sais de façon certaine qu'il...

    2) ( factual wisdom) gen connaissances fpl; ( of specific field) connaissance f

    English-French dictionary > knowledge

  • 2 knowledge

    noun, no pl.
    1) (familiarity) Kenntnisse (of in + Dat.)

    knowledge of human nature — Menschenkenntnis, die

    2) (awareness) Wissen, das

    have no knowledge of something — nichts von etwas wissen; keine Kenntnis von etwas haben (geh.)

    she had no knowledge of it — sie wusste nichts davon; sie war völlig ahnungslos

    [not] to my etc. knowledge — meines usw. Wissens [nicht]

    [a] knowledge of languages/French — Sprach-/Französischkenntnisse Pl.

    somebody with [a] knowledge of computers — jemand, der sich mit Computern auskennt

    4) no art. (what is known) Wissen, das
    * * *
    ['noli‹]
    1) (the fact of knowing: She was greatly encouraged by the knowledge that she had won first prize in the competition.) das Wissen
    2) (information or what is known: He had a vast amount of knowledge about boats.) die Kenntnis
    3) (the whole of what can be learned or found out: Science is a branch of knowledge about which I am rather ignorant.) die Wissenschaft
    •
    - academic.ru/41141/knowledgeable">knowledgeable
    - general knowledge
    * * *
    knowl·edge
    [ˈnɒlɪʤ, AM ˈnɑ:l-]
    1. (body of learning) Kenntnisse pl (of in + dat)
    she has a good working \knowledge of Apple software sie besitzt nützliche, praktische Fähigkeiten im Umgang mit Apple Software
    \knowledge of French Französischkenntnisse pl
    limited \knowledge begrenztes Wissen
    to have [no/some] \knowledge of sth [keine/gewisse] Kenntnisse über etw akk besitzen
    to have a thorough \knowledge of sth ein fundiertes Wissen in etw dat besitzen
    2. (acquired information) Wissen nt, Kenntnis f
    I have absolutely no \knowledge about his private life ich weiß nicht das Geringste über sein Privatleben
    to my \knowledge soweit ich weiß, meines Wissens geh
    to be common \knowledge allgemein bekannt sein
    3. (awareness) Wissen nt
    to deny all \knowledge [of sth] jegliche Kenntnis [über etw akk] abstreiten
    to be safe in the \knowledge that... mit Bestimmtheit wissen, dass...
    it has been brought to our \knowledge that... wir haben davon Kenntnis erhalten, dass...
    ▪ to do sth without sb's \knowledge etw ohne jds gen Wissen tun
    carnal \knowledge Geschlechtsverkehr m
    to have carnal \knowledge of sb mit jdm Geschlechtsverkehr haben form
    * * *
    ['nɒlɪdZ]
    n
    1) (= understanding, awareness) Wissen nt, Kenntnis f

    to have knowledge of — Kenntnis haben or besitzen von, wissen von

    to have no knowledge of — keine Kenntnis haben von, nichts wissen von

    to (the best of) my knowledge — soviel ich weiß, meines Wissens

    not to my knowledge — nicht, dass ich wüsste

    without the knowledge of her mother — ohne Wissen ihrer Mutter, ohne dass ihre Mutter es weiß

    it has come to my knowledge that... — ich habe erfahren, dass...

    safe in the knowledge that... — in der Gewissheit, dass...

    2) (= learning, facts learned) Kenntnisse pl, Wissen nt

    my knowledge of D.H. Lawrence — was ich von D. H. Lawrence kenne

    I have a thorough knowledge of this subject — auf diesem Gebiet weiß ich gründlich Bescheid or besitze ich umfassende Kenntnisse

    the police have no knowledge of him/his activities — die Polizei weiß nichts über ihn/seine Aktivitäten

    * * *
    knowledge [ˈnɒlıdʒ; US ˈnɑ-] s
    1. Kenntnis f:
    the knowledge of the victory die Kunde vom Sieg;
    bring sth to sb’s knowledge jemandem etwas zur Kenntnis bringen, jemanden von etwas in Kenntnis setzen;
    it has come to my knowledge es ist mir zur Kenntnis gelangt, ich habe erfahren ( beide:
    that dass);
    have knowledge of Kenntnis haben von;
    from personal ( oder one’s own) knowledge aus eigener Kenntnis;
    (not) to my knowledge meines Wissens (nicht);
    to the best of one’s knowledge and belief JUR nach bestem Wissen und Gewissen;
    my knowledge of Mr X meine Bekanntschaft mit Mr. X;
    with the full knowledge of mit vollem Wissen von (od gen);
    without my knowledge ohne mein Wissen;
    knowledge of life Lebenserfahrung f; → carnal, common A 5, tree A 1
    2. Wissen n, Kenntnisse pl ( beide:
    of, in in dat):
    basic knowledge Grundwissen, -kenntnisse;
    knowledge of the law Rechtskenntnisse;
    have a good knowledge of viel verstehen von, sich gut auskennen in (dat), gute Kenntnisse haben in (dat);
    * * *
    noun, no pl.
    1) (familiarity) Kenntnisse (of in + Dat.)

    knowledge of human nature — Menschenkenntnis, die

    2) (awareness) Wissen, das

    have no knowledge of something — nichts von etwas wissen; keine Kenntnis von etwas haben (geh.)

    she had no knowledge of it — sie wusste nichts davon; sie war völlig ahnungslos

    [not] to my etc. knowledge — meines usw. Wissens [nicht]

    [a] knowledge of languages/French — Sprach-/Französischkenntnisse Pl.

    somebody with [a] knowledge of computers — jemand, der sich mit Computern auskennt

    4) no art. (what is known) Wissen, das
    * * *
    n.
    Erkenntnis f.
    Kenntnis -se f.
    Wissen n.

    English-german dictionary > knowledge

  • 3 knowledge

    'noli‹
    1) (the fact of knowing: She was greatly encouraged by the knowledge that she had won first prize in the competition.) conocimiento
    2) (information or what is known: He had a vast amount of knowledge about boats.) conocimiento
    3) (the whole of what can be learned or found out: Science is a branch of knowledge about which I am rather ignorant.) conocimiento, saber
    •
    - general knowledge
    knowledge n conocimientos
    tr['nɒlɪʤ]
    1 (learning, information) conocimientos nombre masculino plural
    2 (awareness) conocimiento
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to my knowledge que yo sepa
    not to my knowledge que yo sepa, no
    to the best of my knowledge según mi leal entender y saber
    to be common knowledge that... ser notorio que..., todo el mundo sabe que...
    it has come to my knowledge that... he llegado a saber que...
    to have a working knowledge of something dominar los fundamentos de algo
    knowledge ['nɑlɪʤ] n
    1) awareness: conocimiento m
    2) learning: conocimientos mpl, saber m
    n.
    • ciencia s.f.
    • conocimiento s.m.
    • conocimientos s.m.pl.
    • facultad s.m.
    • instrucción s.f.
    • noticia s.f.
    • saber s.m.
    • sabiduría s.f.
    'nɑːlɪdʒ, 'nɒlɪdʒ
    mass noun
    1) ( awareness) conocimiento m

    I had no knowledge of their activities — no estaba enterado or (frml) no tenía conocimiento de sus actividades

    has he changed his mind? - not to my knowledge — ¿ha cambiado de opinión? - que yo sepa, no

    she did it in the knowledge that... — lo hizo sabiendo que or a sabiendas de que...

    it is common knowledge that... — todo el mundo sabe que...

    2) ( facts known) saber m; ( by particular person) conocimientos mpl

    my knowledge of Spanish/the law is very limited — mis conocimientos de español/de la ley son muy limitados

    ['nɒlɪdʒ]
    N
    1) (=information, awareness, understanding) conocimiento m

    • to deny all knowledge of sth — negar tener conocimiento de algo

    • to bring sth to sb's knowledge — poner a algn al tanto de algo

    • it has come to my knowledge that... — me he enterado de que...

    • it is common knowledge that... — todo el mundo sabe que..., es del dominio público que...

    • to have no knowledge of sth — no tener conocimiento de algo

    • to (the best of) my knowledge — a mi entender, que yo sepa

    not to my knowledge — que yo sepa, no

    • without my knowledge — sin saberlo yo

    2) (=person's range of information) conocimientos mpl
    3) (=learning) saber m
    * * *
    ['nɑːlɪdʒ, 'nɒlɪdʒ]
    mass noun
    1) ( awareness) conocimiento m

    I had no knowledge of their activities — no estaba enterado or (frml) no tenía conocimiento de sus actividades

    has he changed his mind? - not to my knowledge — ¿ha cambiado de opinión? - que yo sepa, no

    she did it in the knowledge that... — lo hizo sabiendo que or a sabiendas de que...

    it is common knowledge that... — todo el mundo sabe que...

    2) ( facts known) saber m; ( by particular person) conocimientos mpl

    my knowledge of Spanish/the law is very limited — mis conocimientos de español/de la ley son muy limitados

    English-spanish dictionary > knowledge

  • 4 knowledge

    ['nɔlɪdʒ]
    n
    знание, знания, сведения, познание, эрудиция, наука

    He has a profound knowledge of the subject. — Он глубоко знает/понимает этот предмет.

    All knowledge comes to us through our senses. — Все наши знания поставляются нам органами чувств. /Мы познаем все через органы чувств.

    Knowledge is power. — ◊ Знание - сила.

    A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. — ◊ Полузнание - опасно.

    - superfictal knowledge
    - theoretical knowledge
    - necessary knowledge
    - direct knowledge
    - human knowledge
    - first-hand knowledge
    - stored knowledge
    - knowledge base
    - knowledge engeneer
    - knowledge engineering
    - knowledge box
    - knowledge on the subject
    - knowledge of the laws
    - inside knowledge of the situation
    - knowledge gained through long research
    - lack of knowledge
    - thirst for knowledge
    - scraps of knowledge
    - all branches of knowledge
    - matter of common knowledge
    - without the knowledge of her parents
    - get knowledge of the subject
    - rub up brush up one's knowledge of history
    - have good knowledge
    - have a working knowledge of computer
    - have a good knowledge of smth
    - have a reading knowledge of German
    - have a working knowledge a German
    - gain knowledge
    - spread the knowledge of smth
    - test smb's knowledge
    - employ one's knowledge
    - speak from one's own knowledge
    - act from one's own knowledge
    - speak with full knowledge of the facts
    - be armed with knowledge
    - acquire knowledge
    - follow knowledge
    - accumulate knowledge
    - communicate knowledge
    - possess the knowledge
    - reach after knowledge
    - show off one's knowledge
    - base one's conclusions on knowledge
    - best of my knowledge
    - my certain knowledge...
    - memory is a form of knowledge
    USAGE:

    English-Russian combinatory dictionary > knowledge

  • 5 knowledge

    {'nɔlidʒ}
    1. знание (of), common/general KNOWLEDGE (все) общо достояние
    it is common KNOWLEDGE that общоизвестно е, всички знаят, че
    my KNOWLEDGE of him това, което зная за него
    to the best of my KNOWLEDGE, as far as my KNOWLEDGE goes доколкото ми е известно
    to my (certain) KNOWLEDGE знам (положително)
    not to my KNOWLEDGE доколкото знам, не
    with a full KNOWLEDGE of с пълно съзнание за
    it has come to my KNOWLEDGE that научих се, че
    to keep from the KNOWLEDGE of крия от
    I had no KNOWLEDGE of it не знаех това
    2. знание, знания, познания, ерудиция (of)
    to have a KNOWLEDGE of зная, владея (език и пр.), general KNOWLEDGE обща култура
    3. новина, съобщение, известие, вест (of)
    4. наука, познание
    * * *
    {'nъlij} n 1. знание (of), common/general knowledge (все)общо до
    * * *
    съзнание; осведоменост; ерудиция; знание; наука; новина;
    * * *
    1. i had no knowledge of it не знаех това 2. it has come to my knowledge that научих се, че 3. it is common knowledge that общоизвестно е, всички знаят, че 4. my knowledge of him това, което зная за него 5. not to my knowledge доколкото знам, не 6. to have a knowledge of зная, владея (език и пр.), general knowledge обща култура 7. to keep from the knowledge of крия от 8. to my (certain) knowledge знам (положително) 9. to the best of my knowledge, as far as my knowledge goes доколкото ми е известно 10. with a full knowledge of с пълно съзнание за 11. знание (of), common/general knowledge (все) общо достояние 12. знание, знания, познания, ерудиция (of) 13. наука, познание 14. новина, съобщение, известие, вест (of)
    * * *
    knowledge[´nɔlidʒ] n 1. знание (of); borrowed \knowledge заимствани знания (в кибернетиката); common ( general) \knowledge общо достояние; to the best of my \knowledge, as far as my \knowledge goes доколкото ми е известно; to my ( certain) \knowledge това го зная (положително); without my \knowledge без аз да зная; with a full \knowledge of пълно съзнание за; to get \knowledge of научавам (се за); it has come to my \knowledge that научих се, че; to bring to the \knowledge of довеждам до знанието на; to grow out of (s.o.'s) \knowledge позабравен съм от; to keep from the \knowledge of крия от; 2. знание, знания, познания, ерудиция (of); \knowledge of human nature познаване на хората; to have a \knowledge of владея (език и под.); to have a working \knowledge of имам известни познания по, разбирам нещо от, справям се с; general \knowledge обща култура; 3. новина, съобщение, известие, вест (of); 4. наука; • carnal \knowledge юрид. полови сношения.

    English-Bulgarian dictionary > knowledge

  • 6 knowledge

    [ʹnɒlıdʒ] n
    1. 1) знание; познания, эрудиция

    knowledge of life [music, chemistry, French] - знание жизни [музыки, химии, французского языка]

    knowledge on the subject - знания /познания/ по данному предмету

    lack of knowledge - недостаток знаний /эрудиции/

    to accumulate [to acquire, to get] knowledge - накапливать [приобретать, получать] знания

    to have a reading knowledge of a language - уметь читать на каком-л. языке

    to have a working knowledge of a language - практически владеть каким-л. языком

    to speak with full knowledge of the facts - говорить со знанием всех обстоятельств (дела)

    to speak from one's own knowledge - говорить, основываясь на собственных знаниях /-ом опыте/

    2) наука; сумма знаний

    branches of human knowledge - отрасли знаний, накопленных человечеством, отрасли науки

    2. 1) осведомлённость, сведения

    the knowledge of the victory soon spread - известие /весть/ о победе вскоре облетела всех

    to have no knowledge of anything, anybody - не иметь ни малейшего представления ни о чём, ни о ком

    to come to smb.'s knowledge - стать известным кому-л.

    it has come to my knowledge that you... - до меня дошли сведения, что вы...

    not to my knowledge - мне это неизвестно; насколько мне известно - нет

    without smb.'s knowledge - без чьего-л. ведома

    it has happened twice within my knowledge - на моей памяти так было два раза

    2) понимание
    3. знакомство

    my knowledge of Mr. X is very slight - я очень мало знаю г-на X

    people of whom I had no knowledge - люди, о которых я понятия не имел

    4. арх. половая близость

    НБАРС > knowledge

  • 7 knowledge

    ['nɔlɪʤ]
    сущ.
    1) знание; познания; эрудиция

    to absorb / assimilate / soak up knowledge — набираться знаний

    to acquire / accumulate / gain knowledge — приобретать, накапливать, получать знания

    to bring smth. to smb.'s knowledge — информировать кого-л. о чём-л., доводить до сведения

    to communicate / disseminate / impart knowledge — передавать знания

    to demonstrate / display / show knowledge — обнаруживать знания

    to flaunt / parade one's knowledge (of a subject) — хвастать своим знанием (предмета)

    - direct knowledge
    - extensive knowledge
    - intimate knowledge of smth.
    - intimate knowledge
    - thorough knowledge of smth.
    - thorough knowledge
    - profound knowledge
    - reading knowledge
    - rudimentary knowledge
    - superficial knowledge
    - speaking knowledge
    - working knowledge
    Syn:

    He did it without my knowledge. — Он сделал это без моего ведома.

    To my knowledge, she has never been here. — Насколько я знаю, она здесь никогда не была.

    4) известие, сообщение
    •
    Gram:
    [ref dict="LingvoGrammar (En-Ru)"]knowledge[/ref]

    Англо-русский современный словарь > knowledge

  • 8 knowledge

    knowl·edge [ʼnɒlɪʤ, Am ʼnɑ:l-] n
    1) ( body of learning) Kenntnisse pl (of in +dat);
    she has a good working \knowledge of Apple software sie besitzt nützliche, praktische Fähigkeiten im Umgang mit Apple Software;
    \knowledge of French Französischkenntnisse pl;
    limited \knowledge begrenztes Wissen;
    to have [no/some] \knowledge of sth [keine/gewisse] Kenntnisse über etw akk besitzen;
    to have a thorough \knowledge of sth ein fundiertes Wissen in etw dat besitzen
    2) ( acquired information) Wissen nt, Kenntnis f;
    I have absolutely no \knowledge about his private life ich weiß nicht das Geringste über sein Privatleben;
    to my \knowledge soweit ich weiß, meines Wissens ( geh)
    to be common \knowledge allgemein bekannt sein
    3) ( awareness) Wissen nt;
    to deny all \knowledge [of sth] jegliche Kenntnis [über etw akk] abstreiten;
    to be safe in the \knowledge that... mit Bestimmtheit wissen, dass...;
    it has been brought to our \knowledge that... wir haben davon Kenntnis erhalten, dass...;
    to do sth without sb's \knowledge etw ohne jds Wissen nt tun
    4) (form: sexual contact)
    carnal \knowledge Geschlechtsverkehr m;
    to have carnal \knowledge of sb mit jdm Geschlechtsverkehr haben ( form)

    English-German students dictionary > knowledge

  • 9 knowledge

    ['nolixh] n 1. njohje. 2. njohuri; dituri; have a working knowledge of Albanian kam njohuri praktike të gjuhës shqipe; have a thorough knowledge of sth e njoh me rrënjë diçka, kam njohuri të plota për diçka. 3. dijeni; have no knowledge of nuk kam asnjë dijeni për; not to my knowledge mesadi unë,jo; without my knowledge pa dijeninë time; to (the best of) my knowledge me sa di unë; it is common knowledge that... dihet mirë se..; it has come to my knowledge that... kam marrë vesh se
    knowledgeable ['nolixhëbël] dj. gj.fol. 1. i mi­rinformuar; inteligjent, i vetëdijshëm, i ndërgjegjshëm. 2. i dokumentuar
    * * *
    njohuri

    English-Albanian dictionary > knowledge

  • 10 knowledge **** knowl·edge n

    ['nɒlɪdʒ]
    1) (information, awareness, understanding) conoscenza

    to have no knowledge of — ignorare, non sapere

    it is common knowledge that... — è risaputo che...

    it has come to my knowledge that... — sono venuto a sapere che...

    2) (learning) conoscenza, sapere m

    English-Italian dictionary > knowledge **** knowl·edge n

  • 11 knowledge

    ['nɔlɪdʒ]
    n
    wiedza f; ( of language etc) znajomość f

    it is common knowledge that … — powszechnie wiadomo, że …

    * * *
    ['noli‹]
    1) (the fact of knowing: She was greatly encouraged by the knowledge that she had won first prize in the competition.) wiedza
    2) (information or what is known: He had a vast amount of knowledge about boats.) wiadomości
    3) (the whole of what can be learned or found out: Science is a branch of knowledge about which I am rather ignorant.) wiedza
    •
    - general knowledge

    English-Polish dictionary > knowledge

  • 12 Knowledge

       It is indeed an opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and, in a word, all sensible objects, have an existence, natural or real, distinct from their being perceived by the understanding. But, with how great an assurance and acquiescence soever this principle may be entertained in the world, yet whoever shall find in his heart to call it into question may, if I mistake not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradiction. For, what are the forementioned objects but things we perceive by sense? and what do we perceive besides our own ideas or sensations? and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these, or any combination of them, should exist unperceived? (Berkeley, 1996, Pt. I, No. 4, p. 25)
       It seems to me that the only objects of the abstract sciences or of demonstration are quantity and number, and that all attempts to extend this more perfect species of knowledge beyond these bounds are mere sophistry and illusion. As the component parts of quantity and number are entirely similar, their relations become intricate and involved; and nothing can be more curious, as well as useful, than to trace, by a variety of mediums, their equality or inequality, through their different appearances.
       But as all other ideas are clearly distinct and different from each other, we can never advance farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to observe this diversity, and, by an obvious reflection, pronounce one thing not to be another. Or if there be any difficulty in these decisions, it proceeds entirely from the undeterminate meaning of words, which is corrected by juster definitions. That the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides cannot be known, let the terms be ever so exactly defined, without a train of reasoning and enquiry. But to convince us of this proposition, that where there is no property, there can be no injustice, it is only necessary to define the terms, and explain injustice to be a violation of property. This proposition is, indeed, nothing but a more imperfect definition. It is the same case with all those pretended syllogistical reasonings, which may be found in every other branch of learning, except the sciences of quantity and number; and these may safely, I think, be pronounced the only proper objects of knowledge and demonstration. (Hume, 1975, Sec. 12, Pt. 3, pp. 163-165)
       Our knowledge springs from two fundamental sources of the mind; the first is the capacity of receiving representations (the ability to receive impressions), the second is the power to know an object through these representations (spontaneity in the production of concepts).
       Through the first, an object is given to us; through the second, the object is thought in relation to that representation.... Intuition and concepts constitute, therefore, the elements of all our knowledge, so that neither concepts without intuition in some way corresponding to them, nor intuition without concepts, can yield knowledge. Both may be either pure or empirical.... Pure intuitions or pure concepts are possible only a priori; empirical intuitions and empirical concepts only a posteriori. If the receptivity of our mind, its power of receiving representations in so far as it is in any way affected, is to be called "sensibility," then the mind's power of producing representations from itself, the spontaneity of knowledge, should be called "understanding." Our nature is so constituted that our intuitions can never be other than sensible; that is, it contains only the mode in which we are affected by objects. The faculty, on the other hand, which enables us to think the object of sensible intuition is the understanding.... Without sensibility, no object would be given to us; without understanding, no object would be thought. Thoughts without content are empty; intuitions without concepts are blind. It is therefore just as necessary to make our concepts sensible, that is, to add the object to them in intuition, as to make our intuitions intelligible, that is to bring them under concepts. These two powers or capacities cannot exchange their functions. The understanding can intuit nothing, the senses can think nothing. Only through their union can knowledge arise. (Kant, 1933, Sec. 1, Pt. 2, B74-75 [p. 92])
       Metaphysics, as a natural disposition of Reason is real, but it is also, in itself, dialectical and deceptive.... Hence to attempt to draw our principles from it, and in their employment to follow this natural but none the less fallacious illusion can never produce science, but only an empty dialectical art, in which one school may indeed outdo the other, but none can ever attain a justifiable and lasting success. In order that, as a science, it may lay claim not merely to deceptive persuasion, but to insight and conviction, a Critique of Reason must exhibit in a complete system the whole stock of conceptions a priori, arranged according to their different sources-the Sensibility, the understanding, and the Reason; it must present a complete table of these conceptions, together with their analysis and all that can be deduced from them, but more especially the possibility of synthetic knowledge a priori by means of their deduction, the principles of its use, and finally, its boundaries....
       This much is certain: he who has once tried criticism will be sickened for ever of all the dogmatic trash he was compelled to content himself with before, because his Reason, requiring something, could find nothing better for its occupation. Criticism stands to the ordinary school metaphysics exactly in the same relation as chemistry to alchemy, or as astron omy to fortune-telling astrology. I guarantee that no one who has comprehended and thought out the conclusions of criticism, even in these Prolegomena, will ever return to the old sophistical pseudo-science. He will rather look forward with a kind of pleasure to a metaphysics, certainly now within his power, which requires no more preparatory discoveries, and which alone can procure for reason permanent satisfaction. (Kant, 1891, pp. 115-116)
       Knowledge is only real and can only be set forth fully in the form of science, in the form of system. Further, a so-called fundamental proposition or first principle of philosophy, even if it is true, it is yet none the less false, just because and in so far as it is merely a fundamental proposition, merely a first principle. It is for that reason easily refuted. The refutation consists in bringing out its defective character; and it is defective because it is merely the universal, merely a principle, the beginning. If the refutation is complete and thorough, it is derived and developed from the nature of the principle itself, and not accomplished by bringing in from elsewhere other counter-assurances and chance fancies. It would be strictly the development of the principle, and thus the completion of its deficiency, were it not that it misunderstands its own purport by taking account solely of the negative aspect of what it seeks to do, and is not conscious of the positive character of its process and result. The really positive working out of the beginning is at the same time just as much the very reverse: it is a negative attitude towards the principle we start from. Negative, that is to say, in its one-sided form, which consists in being primarily immediate, a mere purpose. It may therefore be regarded as a refutation of what constitutes the basis of the system; but more correctly it should be looked at as a demonstration that the basis or principle of the system is in point of fact merely its beginning. (Hegel, 1910, pp. 21-22)
       Knowledge, action, and evaluation are essentially connected. The primary and pervasive significance of knowledge lies in its guidance of action: knowing is for the sake of doing. And action, obviously, is rooted in evaluation. For a being which did not assign comparative values, deliberate action would be pointless; and for one which did not know, it would be impossible. Conversely, only an active being could have knowledge, and only such a being could assign values to anything beyond his own feelings. A creature which did not enter into the process of reality to alter in some part the future content of it, could apprehend a world only in the sense of intuitive or esthetic contemplation; and such contemplation would not possess the significance of knowledge but only that of enjoying and suffering. (Lewis, 1946, p. 1)
       "Evolutionary epistemology" is a branch of scholarship that applies the evolutionary perspective to an understanding of how knowledge develops. Knowledge always involves getting information. The most primitive way of acquiring it is through the sense of touch: amoebas and other simple organisms know what happens around them only if they can feel it with their "skins." The knowledge such an organism can have is strictly about what is in its immediate vicinity. After a huge jump in evolution, organisms learned to find out what was going on at a distance from them, without having to actually feel the environment. This jump involved the development of sense organs for processing information that was farther away. For a long time, the most important sources of knowledge were the nose, the eyes, and the ears. The next big advance occurred when organisms developed memory. Now information no longer needed to be present at all, and the animal could recall events and outcomes that happened in the past. Each one of these steps in the evolution of knowledge added important survival advantages to the species that was equipped to use it.
       Then, with the appearance in evolution of humans, an entirely new way of acquiring information developed. Up to this point, the processing of information was entirely intrasomatic.... But when speech appeared (and even more powerfully with the invention of writing), information processing became extrasomatic. After that point knowledge did not have to be stored in the genes, or in the memory traces of the brain; it could be passed on from one person to another through words, or it could be written down and stored on a permanent substance like stone, paper, or silicon chips-in any case, outside the fragile and impermanent nervous system. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, pp. 56-57)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Knowledge

  • 13 unfamiliar

    [ˌʌnfə'mɪlɪə(r)]
    1) (strange) [face, name, place] non familiare, sconosciuto (to a); [appearance, concept, feeling, situation] nuovo, insolito (to per); [artist, subject] sconosciuto

    to be unfamiliar with sth. — non avere familiarità con qcs

    * * *
    1) (not well-known: He felt nervous about walking along unfamiliar streets.) sconosciuto
    2) (not knowing about: I am unfamiliar with the plays of Shakespeare.) (poco familiare)
    •
    - unfamiliarity
    * * *
    unfamiliar /ʌnfəˈmɪlɪə(r)/
    a.
    1 poco familiare; sconosciuto: The area was unfamiliar to me, la zona non mi era familiare; unfamiliar faces, facce sconosciute
    2 (pred.) poco pratico; inesperto: He was unfamiliar with the machine, non era pratico della macchina
    unfamiliarly avv.
    * * *
    [ˌʌnfə'mɪlɪə(r)]
    1) (strange) [face, name, place] non familiare, sconosciuto (to a); [appearance, concept, feeling, situation] nuovo, insolito (to per); [artist, subject] sconosciuto

    to be unfamiliar with sth. — non avere familiarità con qcs

    English-Italian dictionary > unfamiliar

  • 14 unfamiliar

    1 ( strange) [face, name, place, surroundings] pas familier/-ière (to à) ; [appearance, concept, feeling, problem, situation] inhabituel/-elle (to à) ; [artist, book, music, subject] mal connu ; it's not unfamiliar to me ça me dit quelque chose ;
    2 ( without working knowledge) to be unfamiliar with sth ne pas être familiarisé avec qch.

    Big English-French dictionary > unfamiliar

  • 15 know

    [nou] v.,n. -v. ( knew ; known) di; get to know sth marr vesh diçka; he knows what he's talking about ai di se ç'flet; there's no knowing what may happen si dihet se ç'ndodh; he's known to have been there dihet se ai ka qenë aty; know sth backwards e di diçka në majë të gishtave. 2. njoh; know sb by name/by sight e njoh dikë vetëm si emër/për fytyrë; get to know sb njihem me dikë; I don't know him to speak to nuk kam muhabet me dikë; I knew it e dija. 3. dalloj, shquaj, njoh; he knows a good painting when he sees one ai di ta njohë pikturën e mirë; know the difference between e dalloj ndryshimin ndërmjet; know right from wrong e dalloj të mirën nga e keqja. 4. vi. di; jam në dijeni; as far as I know me sa di unë, we'll let you know do të të vëmë në dijeni; how should I know e nga ta di unë; no, not that I know me sa di unë, jo; there's no (way of) knowing nuk ke nga ta dish; it's not easy, you know ti e kupton, s'është e lehtë; you ought to know better (than to..) duhej ta kuptoje vetë se nuk bëhej kështu; you know best askush s'e di më mire se ti. 5. njoh, jam njohës i mirë i.
    ● know what is what gj.fol. jam i informuar mirë./-n. dijeni.
    ● be in the know jam në dijeni; kam të dhëna nga brenda.
    ● knowable ['nouëbël] adj. i njohshëm
    ● know-all ['nouol] n. zhrg. njeri që shet dije, 'kokë e madhe'
    ● know-how ['nouhau] n. gj.fol. njohuri, aftësi, njohuri teknike
    ● knowing ['nouing] adj 1. i mirinformuar. 2. imprehtë; finok. 3. mirëkuptimi (vështrim)
    ● knowingly ['nouingli] adv 1. me qëllim, me dashje; me vetëdijë. 2. në marrëveshje, me mirëkuptim
    ● know-it-all [nouito:l] n. zhrg. shih know-all
    ● knowledge ['nolixh] n 1. njohje. 2. njohuri; dituri; have a working knowledge of Albanian kam njohuri praktike të gjuhës shqipe; have a thorough knowledge of sth e njoh me rrënjë diçka, kam njohuri të plota për diçka. 3. dijeni; have no knowledge of nuk kam asnjë dijeni për; not to my knowledge mesadi unë,jo; without my knowledge pa dijeninë time; to (the best of) my knowledge me sa di unë; it is common knowledge that... dihet mirë se..; it has come to my knowledge that... kam marrë vesh se
    ● knowledgeable ['nolixhëbël] adj. gj.fol. 1. i mi­rinformuar, i informuar; inteligjent, i vetëdijshëm, i ndërgjegjshëm. 2. i dokumentuar
    ● known [noun] adj 1. i njohur, i ditur. 2. i mirënjohur
    ● know-nothing ['nounathing] n. i paditur, injorant
    * * *
    di

    English-Albanian dictionary > know

  • 16 headhunting

    HR
    the practice of approaching people already working for one company with an offer of a job at another. Headhunting is usually carried out by a recruiter—either an employee within a company or an employment agency—who keeps an eye on the performance of targeted personnel. The recruiter then matches high-performing personnel with job vacancies, contacting individuals directly, without the knowledge of the employer, with a job offer. Headhunters most often perform executive searches, but they may also work at lower levels with the intention of picking out those with management potential. Headhunting is often seen as poaching, and it can create employee retention problems, since a company’s best staff can be tempted to leave by better job offers.

    The ultimate business dictionary > headhunting

  • 17 Cognitive Science

       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense.... [P]eople and intelligent computers turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       2) Experimental Psychology, Theoretical Linguistics, and Computational Simulation of Cognitive Processes Are All Components of Cognitive Science
       I went away from the Symposium with a strong conviction, more intuitive than rational, that human experimental psychology, theoretical linguistics, and computer simulation of cognitive processes were all pieces of a larger whole, and that the future would see progressive elaboration and coordination of their shared concerns.... I have been working toward a cognitive science for about twenty years beginning before I knew what to call it. (G. A. Miller, 1979, p. 9)
        Cognitive Science studies the nature of cognition in human beings, other animals, and inanimate machines (if such a thing is possible). While computers are helpful within cognitive science, they are not essential to its being. A science of cognition could still be pursued even without these machines.
        Computer Science studies various kinds of problems and the use of computers to solve them, without concern for the means by which we humans might otherwise resolve them. There could be no computer science if there were no machines of this kind, because they are indispensable to its being. Artificial Intelligence is a special branch of computer science that investigates the extent to which the mental powers of human beings can be captured by means of machines.
       There could be cognitive science without artificial intelligence but there could be no artificial intelligence without cognitive science. One final caveat: In the case of an emerging new discipline such as cognitive science there is an almost irresistible temptation to identify the discipline itself (as a field of inquiry) with one of the theories that inspired it (such as the computational conception...). This, however, is a mistake. The field of inquiry (or "domain") stands to specific theories as questions stand to possible answers. The computational conception should properly be viewed as a research program in cognitive science, where "research programs" are answers that continue to attract followers. (Fetzer, 1996, pp. xvi-xvii)
       What is the nature of knowledge and how is this knowledge used? These questions lie at the core of both psychology and artificial intelligence.
       The psychologist who studies "knowledge systems" wants to know how concepts are structured in the human mind, how such concepts develop, and how they are used in understanding and behavior. The artificial intelligence researcher wants to know how to program a computer so that it can understand and interact with the outside world. The two orientations intersect when the psychologist and the computer scientist agree that the best way to approach the problem of building an intelligent machine is to emulate the human conceptual mechanisms that deal with language.... The name "cognitive science" has been used to refer to this convergence of interests in psychology and artificial intelligence....
       This working partnership in "cognitive science" does not mean that psychologists and computer scientists are developing a single comprehensive theory in which people are no different from machines. Psychology and artificial intelligence have many points of difference in methods and goals.... We simply want to work on an important area of overlapping interest, namely a theory of knowledge systems. As it turns out, this overlap is substantial. For both people and machines, each in their own way, there is a serious problem in common of making sense out of what they hear, see, or are told about the world. The conceptual apparatus necessary to perform even a partial feat of understanding is formidable and fascinating. (Schank & Abelson, 1977, pp. 1-2)
       Within the last dozen years a general change in scientific outlook has occurred, consonant with the point of view represented here. One can date the change roughly from 1956: in psychology, by the appearance of Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin's Study of Thinking and George Miller's "The Magical Number Seven"; in linguistics, by Noam Chomsky's "Three Models of Language"; and in computer science, by our own paper on the Logic Theory Machine. (Newell & Simon, 1972, p. 4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Cognitive Science

  • 18 solid

    'solid
    1. adjective
    1) (not easily changing shape; not in the form of liquid or gas: Water becomes solid when it freezes; solid substances.) sólido
    2) (not hollow: The tyres of the earliest cars were solid.) macizo
    3) (firm and strongly made (and therefore sound and reliable): That's a solid piece of furniture; His argument is based on good solid facts/reasoning.) sólido
    4) (completely made of one substance: This bracelet is made of solid gold; We dug till we reached solid rock.) macizo
    5) (without breaks, gaps or flaws: The policemen formed themselves into a solid line; They are solid in their determination to strike.) de una sola pieza
    6) (having height, breadth and width: A cube is a solid figure.) sólido
    7) (consecutive; without a pause: I've been working for six solid hours.) seguido, ininterrumpido

    2. adverb
    (without interruption; continuously: She was working for six hours solid.) ininterrumpidamente

    3. noun
    1) (a substance that is solid: Butter is a solid but milk is a liquid.) sólido
    2) (a shape that has length, breadth and height.) sólido
    •
    - solidify
    - solidification
    - solidity
    - solidness
    - solidly
    - solid fuel
    solid adj
    1. sólido
    2. macizo
    tr['sɒlɪd]
    1 (not liquid or gas) sólido,-a
    2 (not hollow) macizo,-a
    3 (dense, compact) compacto,-a
    4 (unmixed) puro,-a, macizo,-a
    5 (strong) sólido,-a, fuerte
    6 (reliable) sólido,-a, de confianza, de fiar
    7 (unanimous) unánime
    8 (continuous) seguido,-a, entero,-a; (unbroken) continuo,-a
    9 SMALLTECHNICAL/SMALL (three-dimensional) tridimensional
    1 (substance) sólido
    ■ solids, liquids and gasses sólidos, líquidos y gases
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    as solid as a rock firme como una roca
    to become solid solidificarse
    solid figure cuerpo sólido
    solid geometry geometría del espacio
    solid ['sɑləd] adj
    1) : macizo
    a solid rubber ball: una bola maciza de caucho
    2) cubic: tridimensional
    3) compact: compacto, denso
    4) sturdy: sólido
    5) continuous: seguido, continuo
    two solid hours: dos horas seguidas
    a solid line: una línea continua
    6) unanimous: unánime
    7) dependable: serio, fiable
    8) pure: macizo, puro
    solid gold: oro macizo
    : sólido m
    adj.
    • compacto, -a adj.
    • consistente adj.
    • denso, -a adj.
    • duro, -a adj.
    • enterizo, -a adj.
    • fijo, -a adj.
    • firme adj.
    • macizo, -a adj.
    • sólido, -a adj.
    • unánime adj.
    n.
    • macizo s.m.
    • sólido s.m.

    I 'sɑːləd, 'sɒlɪd
    adjective -er, - est
    1)
    a) ( not liquid or gaseous) sólido

    solid food — alimentos mpl sólidos

    to become solid — solidificarse*

    b) ( not hollow) <rubber ball/tire> macizo
    c) ( Math) tridimensional
    2)
    a) ( unbroken) <line/row> continuo, ininterrumpido
    b) ( continuous) (colloq) <month/year> seguido
    3)
    a) ( physically sturdy) <furniture/house> sólido; < meal> consistente
    b) (substantial, valuable) <knowledge/reason> sólido
    c) (firm, definite) < offer> en firme
    4)
    a) ( pure) <metal/wood> macizo, puro; < rock> vivo
    b) ( unanimous) <support/agreement> unánime

    II
    1)
    a) (Chem, Phys) sólido m
    b) ( Math) sólido m
    2) solids pl
    a) (in, from liquid) sólidos mpl, sustancias fpl sólidas
    b) ( food) alimentos mpl sólidos

    III
    adverb (colloq)

    to be packed/jammed solid — estar* lleno hasta el tope or hasta los topes

    ['sɒlɪd]
    1. ADJ
    1) (=not liquid) sólido

    • to become solid — solidificarse

    • solid food — alimentos mpl sólidos

    • to freeze solid — congelarse por completo

    • to be frozen solid — estar completamente congelado

    • to go solid — solidificarse

    2) (=firm) [masonry, building, understanding, basis] sólido; [argument] sólido, bien fundamentado; [relationship] sólido, firme

    • get a good solid grip on the handle — agarra bien el mango

    • solid ground — tierra f firme

    to have solid grounds for thinking that... — tener bases sólidas para creer que...

    3) (=not hollow) [rock] sólido; [wood, steel] macizo, puro; [tyre, ball, block] macizo

    • solid gold — oro m puro

    4) (=compact, dense) [layer, crowd] compacto

    • flights to Israel are booked solid — los vuelos a Israel están completamente llenos

    • a man of solid build — un hombre fornido or de constitución robusta

    • a solid mass of colour — una masa sólida de color

    • he's six feet of solid muscle — mide uno ochenta y es todo músculo

    • the streets were packed solid with people — las calles estaban abarrotadas de gente

    • the bolts have rusted solid — los tornillos están tan oxidados que es imposible girarlos

    • the traffic was solid going into town — había una caravana tremenda en dirección a la ciudad *

    5) (=continuous) [line, rain] ininterrumpido

    • we waited two solid hours — esperamos dos horas enteras

    I've been working on this for eight hours solid — he estado trabajando sobre esto durante ocho horas ininterrumpidas, llevo trabajando sobre esto ocho horas sin parar

    6) (=reliable) [person, relationship] serio; [evidence, reason, values] sólido; [information] fiable; [work] concienzudo; [citizen] responsable; [advice] útil

    • he's a good solid worker — es un trabajador responsable

    7) (=substantial)
    8) (=unanimous)
    9) (Geom) [figure] tridimensional
    2. N
    1) (Phys, Chem) sólido m
    2) (Geom) sólido m
    3) solids (=solid food) (alimentos mpl) sólidos mpl

    is he on solids yet? — ¿come ya alimentos sólidos?

    3.
    CPD

    solid angle N — (Geom) ángulo m sólido

    solid compound N — (Ling) compuesto que se escribe como una sola palabra

    solid fuel N — combustible m sólido

    solid geometry N — geometría f de los cuerpos sólidos

    * * *

    I ['sɑːləd, 'sɒlɪd]
    adjective -er, - est
    1)
    a) ( not liquid or gaseous) sólido

    solid food — alimentos mpl sólidos

    to become solid — solidificarse*

    b) ( not hollow) <rubber ball/tire> macizo
    c) ( Math) tridimensional
    2)
    a) ( unbroken) <line/row> continuo, ininterrumpido
    b) ( continuous) (colloq) <month/year> seguido
    3)
    a) ( physically sturdy) <furniture/house> sólido; < meal> consistente
    b) (substantial, valuable) <knowledge/reason> sólido
    c) (firm, definite) < offer> en firme
    4)
    a) ( pure) <metal/wood> macizo, puro; < rock> vivo
    b) ( unanimous) <support/agreement> unánime

    II
    1)
    a) (Chem, Phys) sólido m
    b) ( Math) sólido m
    2) solids pl
    a) (in, from liquid) sólidos mpl, sustancias fpl sólidas
    b) ( food) alimentos mpl sólidos

    III
    adverb (colloq)

    to be packed/jammed solid — estar* lleno hasta el tope or hasta los topes

    English-spanish dictionary > solid

  • 19 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 20 Memory

       To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)
       [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)
       The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)
       4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology
       If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)
       We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)
       The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)
       7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging
       The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)
       A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)
       Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....
       Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)
       When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....
       However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)
       Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)
       Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)
       The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory

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